Early Literacy in Education Essay

Presentation â€Å"Literacy learning has a significant and enduring impact on the social and scholarly existences of kids. Their future instructive chances and vocation decisions are legitimately identified with education capacity. Since youth is the period when language grows most quickly, it is basic that small kids are given an assortment of formatively suitable proficiency encounters consistently, and that the homeroom condition is rich with language, both spoken and printed. Youth educators are answerable for both understanding the formative continuum of language and proficiency and for supporting each child’s proficiency advancement. Education learning starts during childbirth and grows quickly during the preschool time frame. The principle parts of literacyâ€listening, talking, perusing, and writingâ€should all be energized and bolstered through discussions and exercises that are important to the kid and that include grown-ups and peers. Each child’s intrigue and inspiration to participate in proficiency related exercises are obvious before that youngster can peruse or compose traditionally. Youngsters ought to be given conditions that empower proficiency investigation and their new perusing and composing practices ought to be esteemed and bolstered by their instructors. Powerful language and proficiency programs give youngsters who don't communicate in English with open doors for tuning in, talking, perusing, and writing in both English and the home language. It is significant for the instructor to perceive the need to make adjustments in the introduction of jargon, bearings, narrating, perusing, and other oral language correspondence when working with kids who don't communicate in English as their home language. These alterations may incorporate the utilization of visual guides, platform, reiteration, rethinking, and demonstrating. † (NJ Department of Education, 2009) Gone are the days where difficult work was the foundation of our general public. We are a people living in the data innovation age. Everything that is done from preparing your morning mug of espresso to setting your I-case to get you up morning and everything in the middle of requires perusing. Without perusing an individual will confront extraordinary misfortune in everyday living not to mention achievement. It is presently important that each kid and grown-up have the option to peruse and grasp. In the course of recent years, the measure of data that expects one to peruse, use composing abilities, critical thinking, and basic reasoning has developed immensely. Studies have demonstrated that perhaps the most grounded marker of a child’s achievement in school is the instructive accomplishment of their folks. As you can envision, this can obviously impact more than the individual who is unskilled. This can likewise be a capital punishment of neediness and dejection as the kid develops into adulthood similarly as entryways open for the deep rooted peruser. Today we will talk about: what is expected to get ready kids to peruse, the techniques used to help perceive phonics and start the change into emanant perusers, and what should be possible to support perusing later on. Readiness In request for a kid to start perusing guardians must start helping their youngster since the beginning. â€Å"Every stage a youngster takes toward figuring out how to peruse prompts another. A little bit at a time, the youngster manufactures the information that is essential for being a peruser. Over their initial 6 years, most youngsters †¢Talk and tune in. †¢Listen to stories read resoundingly. †¢Pretend to peruse. †¢Learn how to deal with books. †¢Learn about print and how it functions. †¢Identify letters by name and shape. †¢Identify separate sounds in communicated in language. †¢Write with scrawls and drawing. †¢Connect single letters with the sounds they make. †¢Connect what they definitely know to what they hear read. †¢Predict what comes next in stories and sonnets. †¢Connect mixes of letters with sounds. †¢Recognize basic words in print. †¢Sum up what a story is about. †¢Write singular letters of the letter set. †¢Write words. †¢Write basic sentences. †¢Read straightforward books. †¢Write to impart. †¢Read basic books. Kids can take more than one of these means simultaneously. This rundown of steps, however, gives you a general thought of how your youngster will advance toward perusing. † (Helping your youngster become a peruser) While these thoughts may appear to be organized, it is additionally critical to permit kids to be innovative and utilize their creative mind. Despite the fact that perusing is basic, an excessive number of courses of action and rules can kill a kid and lead to sentiments of hatred, outrage, and opposition. Perusing ought to be set to the tone and pace of the kid. New Readers As the measures of training change a reliable factor remains the attention on perusing. Youth instructors must give an environment that is both formatively animating to the understudy while likewise fulfilling the guidelines of training. The strategies used to help perceive phonics and start the progress into emanant perusers fluctuate from understudy to understudy. Without the establishment of phonics look into shows that a youngster won't figure out how to peruse. All kids must realize the letters in order so as to impart viably. Phonics can't be bored into the youngster. This will just deliver retention. Rather, teachers must comprehend a child’s singular needs just as equalization. There is no evident need to show phonics as a different subject. Most kids will build up a feeling of interest from their own insight, thoughts, and intrigue. There will obviously be a chosen few that may profit by a progressively formal guidance. At the point when kids have motivation to realize this will give energy. For instance: The principal letter and sound a youngster ordinarily learns might be their own name. An educator may request that Billy distinguish the primary letter of his name. â€Å"B† answers Billy. â€Å"What sound does the letter B make? † â€Å"Buh-buh-Billy shouts the youngster. Billy is currently motivated and headed to need to become familiar with different sounds the letters make. Guardians and instructors should likewise understand that perusing will differentiate extraordinarily as youngsters develop. The following is a rundown that may help each parent just as educator: â€Å"Infants †¢Talk, read, and sing to infantsâ€they gain from all that they see and hear even in the main phases of life. †¢Take your infant to the recreation center, zoo, and the store with you. Carry her regard for items, signs, and individuals. †¢Always make books a piece of your baby’s toy choice, regardless of whether he appreciates taking care of books more than being perused to. As your youngster develops, call attention to pictures of articles and offer their names. In the end, your youngster will have the option to name the photos, as well. †¢Encourage relationship among images and their meaningâ€as they draw nearer to toddlerhood, kids may start to perceive recognizable finishes paperwork for items and logos for oat or drive-thru eateries. Little children †¢Help babies make the change from infant converse with grown-up language by rehashing their words and articulations effectively without criticizing them. †¢Let babies â€Å"read† their preferred picture books without anyone else while you stay close by to remark. Or then again, stop before a natural word as you read to your little child, and let her fill in the missing word. This works particularly well with rhymes or rehashed holds back. †¢Provide attractive and square letters to acquaint a baby with the spelling of his name. †¢Before you take your little child on another kind of trip, read about the occasions you are going to observe. Talk with your youngster about the experience, and catch up with further perusing to strengthen learning. Preschooler †¢Add new books to your child’s assortment, however continue perusing old top picks. Your preschooler may know them by heart nowâ€this speaks to a significant advance in finding out about perusing. †¢Continue to take youngsters shopping with you, and let them help recognize items with coupons. Let preschool kids participate as you follow a formula. †¢Take books on long excursions with you to support perusing as amusement. Young youngsters †¢Continue to peruse to your kid, regardless of whether she has figured out how to understand as of now. Alternate perusing pages of your preferred books. †¢Encourage story composing by tuning in to the narratives kids tell. †¢Play word games like Scrabble or Boggle with kids and acquaint them with crossword puzzles. † (NAEYC, 1998) Encouragement â€Å"The initial phase in training a kid to peruse is urging them to peruse. † †Unknown. This is a demonstrated certainty in the advancement of kids. A youngster that is energized has no restriction on what the individual in question can accomplish. As teachers and guardians the obligation starts early. Perusing will urge kids to build up a deep rooted love for learning. On the off chance that information is power, books are loaded with it. Why is perusing so critical to youngsters? â€Å"The Media Awareness Network accentuates the conceivably negative impacts staring at the TV can have on children. This incorporates expanded introduction to savagery, sexual substance, and unfavorably influencing a child’s course of improvement. Furthermore, staring at the TV encourages youngsters propensities that advance an inactive way of life, adding to youth corpulence. Then, perusing has been demonstrated to upgrade a child’s life by helping psychological turn of events and helping kids fabricate language aptitudes. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization brings up that perusing assists youngsters with building up a feeling of strengthening. It can likewise assist kids with creating social and relational abilities. Besides, great perusing aptitudes increment instructive chances and may drastically build a child’s chances for scholastic and deep rooted success† (Lendabarker, 2010) There is a tremendous arrangement of alternatives for standard

Employee Efficiency and Organization Productivity †Free Samples

Question: Examine about the Employee Efficiency and Organization Productivity. Answer: Presentation: This paper audits the article The Effect of the Motivation Techniques Used by Managers to Increase the Productivity of their Workers and an Application by Guclu and Guney (2017). The theory proclamation of this article is that efficiency of workers can be expanded by rousing them. The point of this article is to decide the supervisors recognitions towards their representatives explicitly in assembling offices. The target group of this article are directors who deal with a few representatives and need to break down components that influence worker profitability. The investigation is additionally gainful for the researchers and specialists who are hoping to examine inspiration as an effective method to build representative inspiration and profitability. These specialists will have the option to fundamentally investigate factors influencing effectiveness and lead further examinations to improve hierarchical profitability. The creators Haci Guclu and Salih Guney are teachers in Istanbul Aydin University which is one of the most presumed instructive establishments. In this way, the wellspring of this investigation might be viewed as solid. The title of the examination plainly shows that the investigation is identified with inspiration methods for worker profitability. Notwithstanding, the title neglects to make reference to that the investigation is connected with representatives of assembling workers that might be demonstrative of research being a general report. The theoretical of this article is intricate and point by point where a brief is given of proficiency and inspiration strategies. In spite of the fact that, it is seen that the idea of effectiveness and inspiration could be given in presentation as opposed to the theoretical. Furthermore, the discoveries and proposals of the test directed are not given that makes it hazy to the crowd. A total image of the investigation isn't acquired through the theoretical. Further, the issue of the examination study isn't obviously expressed. The reason for this investigation is expressed while it neglects to determine the issues that may emerge if the representatives are n ot inspired. Guclu and Guney (2017) could have expressed the points, destinations, explore questions or speculations obviously. As the investigation doesn't express any examination questions or speculations, the particular issue or worry that will be tended to in the exploration study is indistinct (Graves, Sarkis and Zhu 2013). The writing of the exploration study includes the significance and nature of inspiration and effectiveness in the working environment. The writing of this examination is solid as Guclu and Guney (2017) includes various speculations identified with inspiration, for example, Maslow's Theory of Need Hierarchy, Alderfer's Erg Theory, Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory, McClellands Need Theory, Vrooms Expectancy Theory and different others. These hypotheses are considered the most mainstream and generally applied in each association. In any case, each hypothesis could be diagrammatically spoken to that would help in better comprehension of the crowd. Moreover, a theoretical system could be included where inspiration and productivity can be spoken to as figure. It would help in better comprehension of the examination including speculations, convictions and elements which are a piece of research structure (Gupta and Shaw 2014). The investigation led by Chen et al. (2015) joins apparent wellbeing backing and worker efficiency. This examination article needs to build up the significance of money related and non-fiscal variables influencing inspiration level of the workers. It is contended that arrangement of occupation impetuses can add to social and physical factors in this manner impacting representative inspiration (Patro 2015). It is contended that inspiration has a solid impact over staff results and occupation fulfillment. The hypotheses should be resolved for work fulfillment and worker duty levels. Proposals, for example, directing instructional meetings, climbing pay, giving rewards and perceiving workers in the association can be given (Kumar and Babu 2015). The examination philosophy embraced by Guclu and Guney (2017) to lead the exploration study is study. As the populace was too large, 229 individuals were chosen as the example size working in erkezky Organized Industrial Site. The structure is proper for the investigation as quantitative examination is reasonable for leading exploration concentrate in an enormous populace. The example size is adequate with the end goal of study, for example inspiration influencing productivity of the representatives. The information discoveries of this examination is plainly spoken to as tables that separates the reactions assembled from individuals of various age gatherings, instructive foundation and different socioeconomics. Guclu and Guney (2017) determines the information assortment and investigation techniques that are the most grounded pieces of the examination article. The aftereffects of the article are expressed utilizing various strategies for examination, for example, Cronbachs alpha and Kruskal-Wallis Test. Cronbachs alpha is a test utilized for estimating inward consistency. It is viewed as a proportion of scale dependability. Kruskal-Wallis test helps in estimating legitimacy and dependability of the examination study. Along these lines, the test consequences of this exploration study are dependable and legitimate as huge tests are led. The investigation for the examination study is in arrangement with inspiration level and effectiveness of the workers. A reasonable connection among inspiration and representative efficiency is set up. The outcomes could likewise be spoken to as diagrams or graphs separated from tables to upgrade pictorial portrayal which is progressively effective in comprehension (Barrick et al. 2015). The examination study comes up short on a basic conversation and no relationship to the speculations and ideas to past writing have been resolved. A decent research article contains a basic conversation that talks about the discoveries of research study and presumptions or ideas figured for the examination study. Guclu and Guney (2017) could improve the examination by assessing the content. The discoveries of the examination that were not quite the same as that of ideas and presumptions from past writing go unidentified. As per Samnani and Singh (2014), acknowledgment is a propelling non-financial factor. The significance of workers as most important resources should be resolved. This inquiry can't be replied with an unmistakable proclamation. Against the foundation of the exploration study, this article must investigate through the ways that upgrades representative inspiration or eagerness to work. The investigation can be extended by inspiration influencing their responsibility lev el towards the association that can expand profitability. A conversation in regards to worker devotion and responsibility towards the association can likewise be connected with representative efficiency (Mikkelson, York, and Arritola 2015). The last area of this report, Conclusion and Suggestions adds to the synopsis of the whole research study and proposals for directing any further investigation. The outline of research is introduced in a brilliant way. The discoveries from the writing and essential research is very much spoken to and connected back with the references that adds weight to the contentions made in the investigation (Hogan and Coote 2014). In any case, probably the best shortcoming of the article is that it does exclude the ramifications of the examination. The target group through this examination study are not verified that may delude the perusers. The examination concentrate just includes essential technique for look into that made the investigation tedious. Guclu and Guney (2017) might have decided to include auxiliary investigation examination also to acquire efficient and money saving advantages. The companion looked into diary articles are solid hotspots for adding to the exploration study (Ceraso li, Nicklin and Ford 2014). The proposals accommodated directing further research gives an indication to lead future investigation. As the investigation is restricted to a solitary association, it can't be utilized to sum up results. The representatives of erkezky Organized Industrial Site are surveyed because of which the outcome for different businesses can't be expected. It is additionally noticed that the references picked for this examination study are not the best ones. Deficient references are accommodated scholastic books that don't make reference to the release or spot of distribution. The exploration study could include more companion assessed articles and other presumed diaries that make the examination study legitimate. Likewise, the references are decades old that make the information faulty. There may be an opportunity that the information probably won't be suitable for examining the representatives of current circumstance as the information sources are obsolete. Likewise, no addendum is given expressing the review that was led to assemble information for this examination study. There is a requirement for review including questions that were solicited to the members from this exploration study (Boxall, Hutchison and Wassenaar 2015). Definitively, the postulation articulation of this examination study is demonstrated huge. The representative inspiration and profitability are exceptionally connected with each other. The expansion in inspiration will expand the profitability level of workers. It is contended that arrangement of occupation motivators can add to social and physical factors accordingly impacting worker inspiration. The tests engaged with this exploration study-Cronbachs alpha and Kruskal-Wallis Test are exceptionally dependable and legitimate. The examination can be extended by inspiration influencing their responsibility level towards the association that can expand efficiency. There may be an opportunity that the information probably won't be proper for breaking down the workers of current circumstance as the information sources are obsolete. There is a requirement for overview including questions that were solicited to the members from this examination study. The investigation can be extended by in spiration influencing their responsibility level towards the association that can build profitability. References Barrick, M.R., Thurgood, G.R., Smith, T.A. what's more, Courtright,

Women Are at Greater Risk From Ecstasy Use

Women Are at Greater Risk From Ecstasy Use Addiction Drug Use Ecstasy/MDMA Print Women Are at Greater Risk From Ecstasy Use By Buddy T facebook twitter Buddy T is an anonymous writer and founding member of the Online Al-Anon Outreach Committee with decades of experience writing about alcoholism. Learn about our editorial policy Buddy T Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on January 08, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on May 22, 2019 Getty Images More in Addiction Drug Use Ecstasy/MDMA Cocaine Heroin Marijuana Meth Hallucinogens Opioids Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery Researchers at the Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands found that long-term use of the recreational drug ecstasy, especially among women, can have serious negative effects on specific cells in the brain. The Dutch study indicates that ecstasy (MDMA) can cause the irreversible loss of serotonin neurons which can result in neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and disorders of impulse control. Liesbeth Reneman and colleagues investigated the effects of moderate and heavy ecstasy use, gender differences, and long-term effects of ecstasy use on serotonin neurons in different brain regions. They recruited 15 moderate ecstasy users, 23 heavy users, 16 ex-users who had stopped using ecstasy for more than a year, and 15 controls who claimed never to have used the drug. How Women Are Affected The effects of ecstasy were assessed by calculating the ratio of serotonin receptor density in different parts of the brain compared with the cerebellum by using a single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT). Among heavy ecstasy users, substantial decreases in overall binding ratios were seen in women but not men. In female ex-ecstasy users, overall densities of serotonin transporters were significantly higher than in heavy ecstasy users. Sample May Be Too Small But the study may not have been large enough to establish a difference in how the drug affects women differently from men, according to a commentary published in  The Lancet. George Ricaurte and Una McCann from Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine wrote: Although the study is timely and potentially important, the small sample size and methodological questions limit confidence in conclusions about differences between sexes or possibility of reversibility of the effects of MDMA [ecstasy] in human beings. Studies in larger cohorts of both sexes, free of psychiatric illnesses in which serotonin is implicated, are needed. The effects of moderate ecstasy use on serotonin neurons have not been studied, and gender differences and the long-term effects of ecstasy use on serotonin neurons have not been identified.

Debt Consolidation Is Not For You - 946 Words

If you want, an instant fix then debt consolidation is NOT for you. Debt consolidation is more of a temporary solution that gives you relief from multiple loans and multiple interest rates. However, you need to be extremely careful as to which company you choose. Some of the companies are well reputed and only give out verified unsecured loans at low interest rates that do not harm your credit score. Other companies require a long-term dedication and may eat their way into your credit score and make it impossible for you to get loans from banks. What are the common risks associated of debt consolidation loans? Many companies have declared bankruptcy since the late 90s. It is not an uncommon term we hear in the business world but we†¦show more content†¦How to choose the right company for your business? The best way to choose a debt consolidation company is going by customer and client reviews. We have compiled a list of 10 different top debt consolidation companies that have emerged on top of all debt consolidation lists repeatedly. Check out for a quick but temporary solution to your money woes – Freedom Debt Relief – Freedom Debt Relief is debt counseling cum consolidating company that was founded back in 2002. It is a brainchild of Stanford Business School Graduate that has over 800 employees right now. Over 80,000 customers have lauded them for their counselling and loan services. They mainly cater to the business community in Phoenix and San Mateo. Lexington Law Firm – this is one of the veterans of debt consolidation that has been in existence for over 25 years. It has been helping out people and businesses with bad credit for years. They cater to a wide range of clients in all 50 states and provide debt counselling for clients in select states as well. National Debt Relief – you can find this name at the apex of multiple debt consolidation company lists. They have a wonderful debt reduction, consolidation and counselling history. They are also known to hold seminars and webinars for educating their clients about debt and finances. This is without doubt, one of the largest debt settlement companies in the US. GreenPath – this is one of the veryShow MoreRelatedLoan Modification Requirements For Lenders1365 Words   |  6 Pagesunless you personally give them a phone call or check their website. In the event that your lender s loan modification guidelines are hard to come by, there are professionals all across the country who will give you a free consultation specifically on your possible loan modification and every bit of information you could ask for about your lender s loan modification guidelines could be found there, as well as a simple yes or no answer as to your qualification. 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Jonathan Livingston Seagull And The Myth Of The Cave

Allegory is a story, poem or a picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning. Typically a moral or political one. Jonathan Livingston Seagull by Richard Bach and â€Å"The Myth of The Cave† by Plato are very similar in the as aspect of the interpretation of life. The actions were most inspirational to me, and more comparable. In Jonathan Livingston Seagull, the actions are Jonathan being cast out of the flock, finding there is more to the life of a seagull, and leaving his impact on other seagulls. In comparison to â€Å"The Myth of The Cave†, there are similar actions. The prisoners attempt to explain the outside world, the prisoner being let loose of his chains, and when the prisoner left for good to start his life beyond the cave. The book and the story have characteristics in common, in that the characters both leave their familiar surroundings to find a better way of living. The first action is Jonathan being sent out of the flock, and labeled an outcast. Compared to the prisoner being laughed at for trying to explain the outside world to the other prisoners. In Jonathan Livingston Seagull, Jonathan finds himself spending a lot of his time alone, away from the flock. Instead of surviving day to day, looking for scraps, living a long meaningful life, he longs to be different. His priority isn’t eating like the elder gull lectures about, it is flying. To learn to fly faster, higher than ever before. Due to his actions he is sent out of the flock, to be an outcast atShow MoreRelatedJonathan Livingston Seagull, By Richard Bach And The Mystic Of The Cave883 Words   |  4 PagesThe story of â€Å"Jonathan Livingston Seagull† by Richard Bach and â€Å"The Mystic of the Cave† from The Republic by Plato are two stories that are an allegory about morals. An allegory is a story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden mea ning about a moral, politics or religious meaning. Jonathan Seagull tries to get the other seagulls to concentrate more on flying and the prisoner tries to get the other prisoners to be open minded and get them out of the den. Will these two be successful

A Report On The Strategic Change Issues Facing British Free Essays

string(173) " a key development in how organizations are managed, co-coordinated and controlled, and is suggestive of new relationships and a reordering of organizations and management\." Ancient philosophers always said that the only room that never gets full is the room for change and growth to better levels. Change brings a sound of celebration and relief. In the business sector any change is always geared to the increase in profit. We will write a custom essay sample on A Report On The Strategic Change Issues Facing British or any similar topic only for you Order Now Any business venture has one driving force: creation of wealth and economic growth. This is the reason for existence of businesses like: banking, hotels, airlines, schools, hospitals among others. Operation management is the day to day decisions and ventures that are undertaken to run the company. This can help give a projection into the future 5, 10 or so years. One thing that is very basic is that the world is changing, and an effective business should also help to bring this very necessary difference. â€Å"One of the key roles of a serious manager and entrepreneur is to solve problems decision making is another major role of this officer. † These were the confession of Carleton (2005). Decisions pertaining various departments in a company are made by key management staff in every firm: The key drivers for change that are most likely to impact on the future of business and management are: Stiff and ever increasing competition from key rival firms. One must always be the best in the market place in order to remain advantaged. This will call for several reforms towards improvement, and such challenges will be dealt with as they come. Some decisions to be made, take time and energy. However, the knee-jerk response is to jump straight to the most obvious solution: training and coaching to develop individuals’ leadership skills and potential. This conveniently bypasses the problem-diagnosis stage. It also overlooks the disconnect between what happens at individual and organizational levels. Managerial and human resource aspects have always put pressure on firms. Such pressure is sure argent of change. A global trend is another driving factor towards change. Any new standards set up must be adhered to if one needs to e in the market. The main aim is to develop an appreciation to the role of management in the process change in the firms of interest. Management of such a change can never be an individual affair. It explores the forces driving organizational change and offers a contextual understanding of change management principles. Do you do it alone as a manager? Do you involve others? Do you let others make the decisions? Management is an organized, systematic application of the knowledge, tools, and resources of change that provides organizations with a key process to achieve their business strategy. Change Management is a critical part of any project that leads, manages and enables people to accept new processes, technologies, systems structures and values. Changes are inevitable in any firm or sector. Of great interest is change management in British Airline Company. Many such firms as this exist. This calls for real outstanding leadership in the market place. BRITISH AIRWAYS This is an airline with it’s headquarters in London. Europe has increased sharply over the past decade as the introduction of new airlines has helped push prices down significantly. This airline has routes both within and without the great United Kingdom sky. This airline is the world’s second largest international airline, with a passenger carrying capacity of more than 27 million passengers from one country to another. Also, as one of the world’s longest established airlines, it has always been regarded as an industry-leader. British Airways’ worldwide route network covers more than 216 destinations in 94 countries (including franchises, subsidiaries and one world partners). British Airways is one of the founding partners of the one world alliance, which took off in February 1999. Fellow members now include American Airlines, Aer Lingus, Cathay Pacific, Finnie, Iberia, LanChile and Qantas and Swiss. The original predecessor airline, called Aircraft Transport and Travel, launched the world’s first daily scheduled international air service, British Airways traces its origins back to August 1919. At the moment the airline has an amazing fleet of 312 aircraft; including 100 wide bodied long haul aircraft (57 Boeing 747-400s and 43 Boeing 777s). The current world has gone into corporate alliances, with mergers and acquisitions being the common norm of doing business. For this reason, British Airways has one-on-one relationships with a number of airlines. It owns a 17 per cent stake in Qantas and 9 per cent in Iberia. It also fully owns subsidiaries such as British Airways CitiExpress. Members of British Airways’ franchise family include British Mediterranean Airways, GB Airways, Comair, Loganair and Regional Air. Some of the main components of British Airway’s business strategy include investing in its people and products, and continuing to build a competitive cost base. These objectives, along with other strategic goals and values, have been delivered through a program called â€Å"The BA Way,† which was launched in 2004. This was in response to the people wanting real clarity about where company is positioning itself in the marketplace. The leading entrepreneur once observed that major firms often started as either government or public properties. This however is never the case with British Airways. This company is owned entirely by private investors, with more than a quarter of a million shareholders. British airways just like any business have its own problems. The problems always arise in the process of moving to greater heights. As executive assistant to the director of British airways, change issues facing the organization in the next 5 five years are amazing. The major problems are as below: MANAGERIAL The BA Way has five factors for success: be the best U. K. -based network, understand the customers better than the competition, be a powerful brand that people know and trust, foster a competitive cost base and work together as one team. For a progressive development of a business, proper leadership is bedrock to build on. Managerialism, especially in the public and quasi-market sectors, has provided a key development in how organizations are managed, co-coordinated and controlled, and is suggestive of new relationships and a reordering of organizations and management. You read "A Report On The Strategic Change Issues Facing British" in category "Papers" In the March issue of Fast Company magazine, a fascinating article titled â€Å"What is the Biggest Change Facing Business in the Next 10 Years? † Avram Miler, the CEO of Avram Miller enterprise explained that â€Å"The cornerstone for this millennium is the end of time and space. Most organizations today are run the same way as early-20th-century businesses. Everyone goes to his car, drives to work, has certain hours, and has a certain job. It’s all built on the factory model. Moving forward, it really isn’t going to be important where you are in order to do your job. Ideas are being worked on 24 hours a day. Nobody seems surprised anymore if I wake up in the middle of the night and start IM-ing someone in Europe, because the fact is, they don’t even know where I am. And it doesn’t matter. ’’ He continues to say that â€Å"Fewer and fewer people will want to be employees of corporations, because corporations don’t have anything to offer. Corporations don’t provide security and provide fewer and fewer benefits. People may find new ways to sell their skills. † This illustrates that many people often get employed in companies, but the never have any intentions of staying for long periods. Tim Brown President and CEO, Ideo, Palo Alto, humorously says â€Å"people are ever on the move to greener pastures. † This is one major problem in management. Employees, some of whom hold very key positions in the company always transfer to the so called green pastures. The human resources manager of British airways observed that many of their staff has often moved to start their own ventures. These range from local to international ventures. The best way to manage this problem is to create laws governing employment. Its true that a person performs best only after getting good orientation on an environment. Consistency is another key to excellence. To avoid loosing employees, a minimum duration should be put, such that no employee can leave before finishing some specific time duration. This will help the airline to retain workers for some good time and hence foster consistency. The major hindrance to this implementation is some weakness in management. Friends to departmental heads are always favored and the axe rarely falls on them. This however can be managed by prosecution of any corrupt staff. Another managerial problem often realized in British Airways is lack of commitment in some of the employees. They often take long to finish any assignment given to them, and when asked to give an explanation, this is a ticket to being their enemies. This vice in a company leads into loss of money, because people are paid their allowance while they don’t perform their duties. Many researches argue that training and development programs increase the organizations performance and effectiveness. This can help increase the work output because more experience is injected to the generally trained staff. Toward a better understanding of the effects of training and development in the workplace, this research points out the importance of training and development the workforce, determines the major types of training and development programs, discusses the relationship between training and the overall organizational performance, and offers some guidelines for HR managers to design effective training and development programs. Signing of performance contracts has helped to alleviate this vice. This helps to ascertain that an employee indeed deserves to get his salary. Burnes (2004) in his book arrives at a style which enables healthy competition within a firm, resulting into increase of production. He says â€Å"the ability of an enterprise to compete within the prevailing settings relies on two qualities: †¢ The capacity of the firm to identify and understand the competitive forces in play and how they change over time linked together. †¢ The competence of a business to mobilize and manage the resources necessary for the chosen competitive response through time. British Airways have implemented this, and many staff has always been awarded for showing commitment and excellent performance. GLOBALISATION Another method British Airways’ learning division has used to promote organizational values is through owning its Future program, which every employee across the enterprise—from in-flight crews to customer service staff—must go through at some point. This is delivered by the internal senior management teams. It’s about helping people understand the business direction, the environment that they are operating in and the way they are positioning themselves in the business. By understanding that, people will understand the actions the team is taking in driving the business forward (British Airways, 2005) Some of the changes that British Airways has in the next five years include: †¢ BA to increase services between New York JFK and Gatwick, but at the same time drop its link to the US city from Manchester Airport. †¢ BA to enhance the passenger experience at the new London Heathrow Terminal 5 with the installation of art works in its premium lounges. Companies move towards forming alliances, both local and at international level. The environment in which most organizations operate today is continuously changing, and the rate of change is increasing. Almost most organizations are now involving in tremendous increase in international business and foreign assignments. British Airways is not left behind. At the moment, the company has offices in all capital cities in the world. At the same time, serious advertisements are on the run. To enhance collisions, BA purchased the small German domestic airline Delta Air Transport in 1992 and renamed it Deutsche BA. By the time it was sold in June 2003, DBA was operating 16 Boeing 737s and was the second-largest German domestic carrier, after Lufthansa. Globalization is a disposition towards international interaction and co-operation. This comes with the general growth of a knowledge based economy. Impacting on the financing structure of organizations and employment practices. The ability of an enterprise to compete within the prevailing settings majorly relies on two qualities: the capacity of the firm to identify and understand the competitive forces in play and how they change over time, linked to †¢ the competence of a business to mobilize and manage the resources necessary for the chosen competitive response through time. . The environment in which most organizations operate today is continuously changing, and the rate of change is increasing. Almost most organizations are now involving in tremendous increase in international business and foreign assignments. BA aims at increasing the number of passengers greatly. New infrastructure is required for this. Heathrow Terminal 5 was built exclusively for the use of British Airways at a cost of ? 4. 3 billion and officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 14 March 2008. It opened to passengers on 27 March 2008. more air crafts are also to be purchased come 2013. for instance, On 27 September 2007, BA announced their biggest order since 1998 by ordering 36 new long haul aircraft. The company ordered 12 A380s with options on a further 7, and 24 Boeing 787s with options on a further 18. TECHNOLOGY Technological factors are information technology/the internet, new production processes computerization of processes and changes in transport technology (Human Resource Management Journal, 2008). There are also internal triggers for change which include: new chief executive, unionization or de-unionization, structural a change, re-design of factory or office layout, re-design of jobs, new IT equipment or software introduced, cuts in overtime working and redundancies (Epmbook, 2007). As research continues in the energy sector, Bio fuel may be used by BA planes. This is an improvement towards good environment creation. Indeed this is amazing. Currently the test of planes is going on, on their response to bio fuel. The above forces are for easier information transfer, facilitates global structures, requires new competencies and expectations, facilitates telecommuting; new employment relationships, more emphasis on knowledge management, quick competition through globalization, more educated workforce etc (McShane and Travaglione, 2003). Change management entails thoughtful planning and sensitive implementation, and above all, consultation with, and involvement of, the people affected by the changes and BA has mastered this art. Change must be realistic, achievable and measurable. These aspects are especially relevant to managing personal change. Before starting organizational change, ask yourself: What do we want to achieve with this change, why, and how will we know that the change has been achieved? Who is affected by this change, and how will they react to it? How much of this change can be achieve without? These aspects also relate strongly to the management of personal as well as organizational change (Business balls, 2006). If you think that you need to make a change quickly, probe the reasons – is the urgency real? Will the effects of agreeing a more sensible time-frame really be more disastrous than presiding over a disastrous change? Quick change prevents proper consultation and involvement, which leads to difficulties that take time to resolve, (Burns Stalker, 1994). BA does not sell change to people as a way of accelerating ‘agreement’ and implementation. ‘Selling’ change to people is not a sustainable strategy for success, unless your aim is to be bitten on the bum at some time in the future when you least expect it. Change can be unsettling, so the manager logically needs to be a settling influence. BA has gone through extreme lengths to ensure that they study the market. They are keen on the use face-to-face communications to handle sensitive aspects of customer relations and encourage managers to communicate face-to-face with their people. They discourage the use of email and written notices as they are extremely weak at conveying and developing understanding. At all times involve and agree support from people within system (system = environment, processes, culture, relationships, behaviors, etc. , whether personal or organisational). †¢ In depth understanding of the organisation’s position at all times. †¢ In depth understanding of the direction of the organisation. †¢ Open and clear communication channels. SPECIFIC CHANGES THAT BRITISH AIRWAYS HAS ENCOUNTERED From a humble background BA has expanded to the giant it is by now. This never occurred in one day, neither was it a very smooth transition. Given time, all have a potential to expand to the highest levels. One of the greatest changes that occurred in BA was mergers and acquisition. During the 1990s BA became the world’s most profitable airline under the slogan â€Å"The World’s Favorite Airline†. The management then saw the need to expand. A merger is the business transaction that takes pace between two firms. One firm acts as a buyer, while the other company is bought. Mergers take place to help cub extreme competition and also to widen the market scope. In 1992 BA purchased the small German domestic airline Delta Air Transport and renamed it Deutsche BA. This widened the market space into Germany. By the time it was sold in June 2003, DBA was operating 16 Boeing 737s and was the second-largest German domestic carrier, after Lufthansa. The lesson learnt is that mergers bring expansion and growth. In the year 1995, BA formed British Asia Airways, a subsidiary based in Taiwan, to operate between London and Taipei. Owing to political sensitivities, British Asia Airways not only had a different name, but also had a different livery, with the Union Jack tailfin being replaced by Chinese characters. Many airlines followed the same practice, e. g. , Qantas flew to Taiwan as â€Å"Australia Asia Airways† and KLM’s Taiwan operations became â€Å"KLM Asia†. British Asia Airways ceased operation in 2001 when the airline suspended flights to Taiwan due to low yield. A change brings with it many resettlements. Some include employment of new staff to handle the expansion. This was the case in the two mergers in Germany and Taiwan. Other changes are indeed not pleasing. An example is the laying off of staff incase of closure. Proper marketing must be done. This is to keep the much esteemed customers aware of the company’s developments. The road to success is never a smooth one. Any push to the positive is always met by opposing currents. Some of pitfalls to change into a new market include competition. The main competitors of British Airways are bmi and virgin Atlantic. These offer great rivalry. However BA has managed this through its strategies to make sure that clients are satisfied by the service delivery. Capital is another challenge to expansion. Some expansion ventures require much money. This is money to buy planes and to do office set up, with an aim of getting back the profit. Many a times the company has gone through looses especially when they were forced to pull back. Withdrawal is not very pleasant but it is the best option especially when things are not working. This was the case in Taiwan. The world population is large and ever-growing. This has and will provide market for flight industry. The best way to venture is to do market surveys. Once the costumer’s desires are known, follow up can be made to come up with a product to satisfy the need. It pays a lot to be the market leader in terms of innovations. This will give an advantage over other companies. CONCLUSION It takes commitment and vision to be on the top. BA has one dream, which is to be on top in the flight industry. In the next five years, the company shall have diversified its services in terms of quality and quantity expansion. REFERENCES 1. British Airways(2005): The Wings of Learning. Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 19th April 2008 from http://www. clomedia. com/content/templates/clo_article. asp 2. Buchanan, D Boddy, D. (1992). The Expertise of the Change Agent. Hemel Hempstead. US: Prentice Hall. 3. Burns Stalker, (1994). The Management of Innovation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4. Businessballs (2006). Change management. Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. businessballs. com/changemanagement. htm 5. 5. Change Management (2008). A Thirst for Change Leadership. Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. change-management. com/tutorial-change-leadership-mod4. htm 6. DCUBS (1996). Total Quality Management and Organisational Change. Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. dcu. ie/dcubs/research_papers/no15. htm 7. Epmbook (2007). Organisational Change Management. Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. epmbook. com/orgchange. htm 8. Harvard Business Review journal. Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. learnoutloud. com/Catalog/Business/Leadership-and-Management/Change-Management/820 9. Harvard Business Review journal (1995). Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. hbsp. harvard. edu/hbsp/hbr/articles/article. jsp 10. Human Resource Management Journal (2008). Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. blackwellpublishing. com/journal. asp1 11. McShane S. and Travaglione T. (2003). Organisational Behaviour on the Pacific Rim. Australia: McGraw-Hill. 12. Organisation Studies journal (2008). Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. mbs. ac. uk/research/organisationstudies/cms5/call-papers/talk-power. aspx 13. Personnel Today Journal of Applied Human Capital Management (2007). Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. personneltoday. com/blogs/hcglobal-human-capital-management/2007/04/journal-of-applied-human-capit. html 14. Pettigrew, A and Whipp, R (1991) Managing Change for competitive success. U. K: Blackwell. 15. Strategy + Business (2004). 10 Principles of Change Management. Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. strategy-business. com/ 16. 15. The Economist journal (2008). Retrieved from World Wide Web as from 18th April 2008 from http://www. sciencedirect. com/ How to cite A Report On The Strategic Change Issues Facing British, Papers

Tragedy of Tess of the DUrbervilles Essay Example For Students

Tragedy of Tess of the DUrbervilles Essay Thomas Hardys (1840-1928) novel Tess of the DUrbervilles (1891) was Hardys attempt to take a closer look upon the ideals of his era, and through Tess and her story, criticize it. Hardy himself said of tragedy; It may be put thus in brief: a tragedy exhibits a state of things in the life on an individual which unavoidably causes some natural aim or desire of his to end in a catastrophe when carried out. There are many ways to perceive a text as a tragedy, beginning from Aristotle who was the first to define the term and concept of tragedy as the imitation of an action which is serious, complete and substantial and by evoking pity and terror it brings about the purgation of those emotions. During the Renaissance, however, the concept of tragedy experienced a reformation and was fitted to express the qualities admired by the society, and later, England during the Victorian era also reformed Aristotles ideas to accommodate their religious as well as largely accepted social norms and views. We will write a custom essay on Tragedy of Tess of the DUrbervilles specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now This essay will take a closer look of those ideas at tragedy raised by Aristotle, some of the times when tragedy went through reformation, and Hardy himself, all in connection to Hardys Tess of the DUrbervilles and the questions, and ideas, raised within the novel that makes Tess torments a tragedy. Tragedy of Tess Tess can be perceived as a tragedy merely due to the obvious reasons such as how she is being taken advantage by her parents who in their greed and false pride upon a newly learned ancestors play Tesss guilt to get their foot in to a better life, and the consequent manipulation and abuse of Tess by he cus Alec DUrberville, and the various tragic events that take place thereafter. Hardy used his novels to get more attention drawn towards the hypocrisy of English society as well as deal with the transition of the beginning of Englands shift from old-fashioned, socially condemning, agricultural nation towards to a more modern and industrial one. The ordeals faced by the Durbeyfield family can be seen as an allegory to the fading in importance of aristocracy and old money as well as the importance of a name when industries started to blossom, shortening the gap between classes into obscurity. The tragic events and plot can be divided into four major parts, or rather, point of views; that of Tess herself, and the tragic lives and experiences of Alec DUrberville, Angel Clare and then John and Joan Durbeyfields create their own tragic story lines besides Tesss. John and Joan Durbeyfields tragedies are self-imposed, as after learning of their noble ancestry, their pride rules over their better judgment and even over their love for daughter, whom they are ready and willing to sacrifice to be acknowledged. John Durbeyfields pride that brings about his own destruction (as he becomes too noble to work hard and rather sits and thinks of his great birth right) is symbolized through his love for the dead horse; I wont sell his old body. When we DUrbervilles was knights in the land, we didnt sell our chargers for cats meat. Let em keep their shillings! Such is their pride that even when Tess returns from Alec DUrbervilles house and gives birth to a son, they refuse to get the baby proper care, and leave Tess more or less on her own with her descending sorrows. Tess, though, is stronger than she might first appear to be. Whilst nursing her child by the crop during a break from fieldwork, she thinks to herself; the past was past; whatever it had been it was no more at hand. Whatever its consequences, time would close over them; they would all in a few years be as if hey had never been, and she herself grassed down and forgotten. Tesss tragedies are obvious as all her tragic events derive from her being forcibly seduced by Alec, and this leads to the tragedy of Angel Clare as well, as he in his desperation and learned impression cannot accept Tesss sin. At first Tess was leaned to accept the sin was hers and hers alone, till the realization hits her that she is being wrongly punished, claiming; Never in her life she could swear it from the bottom of her soul had she ever intended to do wrong; yet these hard judgments had come. Whatever her sins, they were not sins of intention, but of inadvertence, and why should she have been punished so persistently? Tesss confession brings about the tragedy of Angel Clare, who cannot see beyond the crime committed, without realizing that Tess has been the victim, and thus Clares tragedy comes from the contrast he has between belief and practise, as; so gentle and affectionate as he was in general, there lay hidden a hard and logical deposit, like a vein of metal in a soft loam, which turned the edge of everything that attempted to traverse it. Clare does not realize his own unfairness till its too late, until he sees Tess again and; [ his original Tess had spiritually ceased to recognize the body before him as hers allowing it to drift, like a corpse upon the current, in a direction disassociated from its living will. This perception of Tess is far from his original ideas of a creature not to toy with and dismiss; but a woman living her precious life. Alec DUrbervilles tragedy comes from his own doings, his inability to consider others, and from his insincere and shallow conversion to faith when he had nothing else left. .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab , .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .postImageUrl , .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab , .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab:hover , .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab:visited , .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab:active { border:0!important; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab:active , .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua456bf48c98a441b9188573830ce19ab:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: What is British Culture? EssayAgain, Tess brings about a downfall, although in reverse as it was Alec who started the chain of tragic events, as Alec upon seeing Tess again after all the years, turns his back to religion. Tess takes a blow at Alec about his hypocrisy; You, and those like you, take your fill of pleasure on earth by making the life of such as me bitter and black with sorrow; then it is a fine thing, when you have had enough of that, to think of securing your pleasure in heaven by becoming converted! Alec becomes obsessed with Tess and this time it is more than just a rich boys fancy; he stalks her and pressures her into becoming his lover and live in sin, ev en though Tess bravely tries to resist and stay faithful to her wayward husband. Alecs temper gets the better of him more than once, and he goes even as far as acknowledging his own crime upon Tess in a scream; Remember, my lady, I was your master once! I will be your master again. If you are any mans wife you are mine! In the end, Alecs manipulation grumbles Tesss resistance. What makes Tesss tragedy harder towards the end, is that she knows she is going to give in to Alec again, as her faith in Angel Clare is fading, until Angel Clare returns. Clares sudden return throws Tesss life upside down so quickly that she cannot handle it and in momentary panic she screams at Alec; And my sin will kill him and not kill me! Oh, you have torn my life all to pieces ade me a victim, a caged wretch before killing Alec and running away. In Aristotelian sense, the moment Tess kills Alec should be the moment of restoration of events, but it is not. Tesss and Angels tragedies are not yet over. The restoration is only restored once; Justice was done, and the President of Immortals had ended his sport with Tess. And the DUrberville knights and dames slept on their tombs unknowing. Tragedy of Aristotle According to Aristotle, in his Poetics, the leading idea of a tragedy is the Plot, which is the most important structural aspect; it is Plot that shows how the imitation of reality and how the actions lead the story line and the characters in it, as a tragedy is not imitation of men, but rather an imitation of actions, and it is the actions that in the end determine the outcome, as what we do determines the nature of our existence. Essential ingredients to tragedy are the peripeteia, anagnorisis and the characters hamartia, which together create the muthos (the organization of events). The muthos is defined by an action which is in itself whole, completed and substantial, meaning that it has a beginning, middle and an end, the ending being the most important part as it brings upon the catharsis of emotions aroused. Aristotle goes on explaining that in a good tragedy the muthos must imitate a single, unified and complete sequence of action, the events must be well organized that any shift in their position would cause disfiguration with the events logicality and even irrationality, although each component part must have individual substance. This idea of muthos is well organized in Tess, as even though the novel follows various story lines, in moves in order and in the end links them all together as a unity; there should be an inevitable or plausible link between what happens and what follows, as there is with Tesss faith; she accidentally causes the death of the family horse, which leads to her parents sending her away for work for the relatives, which leads into Tesss forced seduction by Alec and the tragic events that take place thereafter. What leads to action in Aristotelian tragedy, is often the hamartia of the character, which can results from an intrinsic quality of the character or mere bad judgment from the protagonists side. Tesss hamartia might be her naivety, coming from a small town, simple family with no real experiences, to the house of an experienced strong-willed and self-centred man, or it might be the fact that even after she has been taken advantage of by Alec, she still stays at the house for some time after the initial incident in the forest before deciding to flee back to her parents house and discovering she is about to bring a child into the world. Tesss hamartia can be a weakness of character, simplicity of not knowing better or a mere inability to stand up for herself. Whatever it is, the time she spent with Alec, and the child that was born from it, pushes forward a whole set of incidents that will strongly prove the depth of Tesss tragic life, and of those around her. Aristotle uses Oedipus as his example of hamartia and its consequences; Oedipus by trying to prevent and avoid the predicted killing of his father and marriage to his own mother leads himself exactly into those situations and thus causes his own hamartia. Tess does not exactly lead herself into her own downfall, but this is probably due to her inexperience and inability to see the risk and consequences of her own actions, and the actions of those around her. What follows the establishment of hamartia in action in tragedy is discovery as there is an inevitable or implausible link between what happens and what follows, and, just like in Tess, the important difference is whether something is happening because of something else, or something happening after it. .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d , .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .postImageUrl , .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d , .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d:hover , .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d:visited , .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d:active { border:0!important; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d:active , .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u07228ad3e9aeb96eb1dc20b8cc771b9d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Woman Warrior by Maxine Hong Kingston EssayThe discovery that takes place when following Aristotles structure of ideas concerning tragedy and leads Tess into knowledge or better, awareness of her own situation and the consequences of actions, comes after Sorrows death. And what more supports the idea of tragedy, is that even though Tess and her family were not people of high standard or great fortunes, they were decent people (and here Hardys take on towards Victorian society norms comes out) where they fall from good fortune to bad. The Victorian era views of tragedy varied greatly from those of Aristotle who wrote Poetics before Christianity existed. Tragedy had been re-interpreted and reformed throughout times, notably in Renaissance where the Greek tragedy was rediscovered although with a gloomier twist. The Renaissance tragedy dealt with people of nobility and their tragic events, usually leading to the death of the protagonist and anyone else that mattered to the plot of they play (notably Shakespeares Hamlet). The Victorian society viewed many moral issues in black and white terms relating most things to the morals stated in Christianity, and things like the status of a woman was very sternly looked upon, and any woman standing out of the moral codes, like compromising her purity would be condemned by society, and this notion comes through in Hardys descriptions of Tesss hardships. Even though some of the hardships that Tess endures are self-imposed, most of them come from Tesss knowledge that her actions would not be accepted, and she thus imposes upon herself a punishment vowing never to marry; she was a fallen woman, no matter if it was due to her or someone elses actions. Hardy discusses these aspects of Tesss immorality and its consequences in comparison with the laws of nature and those of the society, especially that of the difference between the actions of man to those of a woman; Angel Clare admits on their honeymoon night of having had an affair with an older woman, but when Tess confesses her past experiences, he immediately judges her actions worse than his own, down-casting Tess immediately from his grace as to a woman who could not possibly be part of him. Also, Tess by refusing to force Alec to marry her, or rather, accept herself to marry Alec, also shows another dawning change; the change in the status of women in modern English society. The Victorian era was in many ways an era of changes; there was the looming industrial revolution (which Hardy also deals in his writing, as something inevitable but not necessarily good), and the dawning of womens rights movements. In Aristotelian view of perfect tragedy, the discovery should lead into restoration, or reversal of fortunes, and this should be just as inevitable or implausible as was discovery. These actions that determine the discovery and reversal should arouse fear and pity and through them, a catharsis of emotions when the plot reaches the pathos stage, where the hero or in this case heroin is faced with suffering that arouses the above mentioned emotions. Perhaps Tess does not follow the original structure of Aristotles ideas of tragedy, as the characters, notably the protagonist is not a hero of high degree or reputation, but a lower middle-class young woman, whose morality is compromised. Nor does the plot go from happiness to unhappiness but quite the opposite; Tesss experiences start from a state of unawareness, neither particularly happy nor unhappy, but move quickly that of even a greater unhappiness bringing upon the downfall of all the characters of importance in the story. Aristotle also mentions that in the best of tragedies, the deed must either be done or not be done; the does must either know the truth or not know the truth as this is vital for the development of the plot. In Tess, the situation might be closer to that of not knowing the full circumstances until afterwards, and this implies to all Tess, Alec and Angel, who all go through set of actions and emotions that will change them and later on they try to make amends. Alec by turning to religion, only to fall again because of his feelings for Tess, and Angel by discarding Tess only to be brought to his senses by a stranger, and Tess by trying hard to keep faith and to do the right thing, only to yield again under Alecs manipulation, and by taking the last desperate attempt to ratify things by killing Alec for his love for Angel. Perhaps Tesss tragedy is less that she has been abused, taken advantage of and finally abandoned by the one man she loved, than that she herself turned down the one man who was ready to abandon his own spiritual salvation in order to pursue her. Quite possibly, despite the roughness of Alecs manners, he was more suitable for her, and the real tragedy comes from Tesss inability to realise this. The tragedy of Tess of the DUrbervilles derives from the many life stories Hardy has chose in his novel to represent the ideals of his time, and even though Hardys shows his era in a pessimistic light, there is a sense of change in there that Hardy obviously strongly encourages. The most tragic conception of the novel is that Tess is not only suffering because of having been wronged, but also because her loved ones are not offering her the help and salvation she yearns for.

history jane adams essays

history jane adams essays Journeyed to Europe and the sight of large numbers of poor people in Londons East End made a lasting impression on her. When she returned, she searched for a new way to be useful. Social Settlement houses to help immigrants with the transition of settling in the US English Language classes, neighborhood health clinics, after-school programs, and instructions in personal hygiene and infant care 6 settlements in 1891, 200 by 1900 Addams believed that social-welfare activities would improve the lot of the poor and thus diffuse their radical, violent impulses She hoped to offer work for young well-educated women She believed that these women could actually used the skills they were taught while working at these houses Co-founder of the NAACP 1908. Worked with Ida B Wells to prevent segregated schools in Chicago. Civil rights leader and scholar Ridiculed the notion that blacks should be content to become maids, carpenters, and sharecroppers. Joined other black leaders to form the Niagara Movement, which called for an end to segregation and discrimination in unions, the courts, and public accommodations, as well as equal economic and educational opportunity. 1905 Helped establish the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. 1908. The new organization adopted the same platform as the Niagara Movement. Became editor of the NAACP journal The Crisis. He promoted the idea of the Talented Tenththat the most "fit" in his mind men of his race would gain higher education and pull the African American race as a whole up and forward. Although this idea was controversial and not accepted by everyone. Black woman born in slavery ...

Chinas Treatment of Its Growing Elderly Population

China's Treatment of Its Growing Elderly Population Chinas famous one-child policy had an aftereffect of creating a larger elderly population. Westerners often hear about how much regard the Chinese have for the elderly, but as China grows old, a number of challenges potentially await the emerging superpower. With this review of the elderly in China, better your understanding of how old people are treated in the country and the impact of a rapidly aging population there. Statistics About the Aging Population   The population of the elderly (60 or older) in China is about 128 million, or one in every 10 people. By some estimates, that puts Chinas sheer number of senior citizens at the largest in the world. It is estimated that China could have up to 400 million people over 60 years of age by the year 2050. But how will China address its masses of senior citizens? The country has changed dramatically in recent years. This includes the changing of its family structure. In traditional Chinese society, the elderly used to live with one of their children. But today more and more young adults are moving out, leaving their elderly parents alone. This means that the new generation of elderly people may not have family members to tend to their needs, as young people in the country traditionally have.   On the other hand, many young couples are living with their parents because of economic factors and not because of tradition. These young adults simply cannot afford to buy a house of their own or rent an apartment. Experts say family-based care is now impractical because most middle-aged children have little time to take care of their parents. So, one of the things the elderly have to face in 21st century China is how to live out their twilight years when their families cant take care of them. Older people living alone is not an anomaly in China. A nationwide survey found that about 23 percent of Chinas seniors over the age of 65 live by themselves. Another survey conducted in Beijing showed that fewer than 50 percent of elderly women live with their children. Housing for the Elderly Since more and more elderly  live alone, homes for the elderly arent enough to meet their needs. One report found that  Beijings 289 pension houses could accommodate only 9,924 people  or 0.6 percent of the population above age 60. To better serve the elderly, Beijing adopted regulations to encourage private and foreign investment in homes for the elderly.   Some officials believe that the problems facing Chinas elderly can be solved through combined efforts from family, the local community, and society as a whole. Chinas goal is to establish a support network for senior citizens that provides medical care and helps them avoid loneliness through scholarly pursuits and entertainment. The network would also encourage  senior citizens to continue serving society after retirement age by using the knowledge theyve acquired over the years. As Chinas population ages, the nation will also have to take a hard look at how this shift will affect its ability to compete on the world stage.

Web-based training Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Web-based training - Essay Example The world is discovering a new instructional tool, the Internet, which defies geographical, financial, and time boundaries.Member firms of the trade association worldwide are employing the World Wide Web to give employers, employees, and those wishing to gain knowledge more opportunities to learn. Web-based training and instruction strategies employ the Internet in delivering instructional information. A current training method can be supported by web-based instruction can support an existing teaching method or computer-based instructional methods can be used instead of the existing method of training. These act as an extension of businesses, firms, and industries in providing learning opportunities to various individuals such staff members and employees.Training via web-based instructional intervention and information literacy allows users to learn at their convenience as the Internet allows learning, instructing, and training to go on regardless of location and time. The instructio n is not limited to an office, conference room, or classroom at a set hour. Users work according to their learning style and pace. Traditional training and additional education usually causes users to work at the pace of others and various learning styles cannot be accommodated. Learning may be hindered. Additional advantages are online education provides more affordability, flexibility, and options. Also, opportunities for learning, growth, and increased jobs are also a plus with training via technology. There is much literature on the topic of transferring the skills to those who are being trained. The goal of empowering employees, staff members, and students to use resources without assistance can be achieved in a number of ways. Some of these different avenues include learning via general tours, special group sessions, online tutorials, semester-long courses, office training sessions, company training opportunities, or a combination of these. Student's Last Name 2 Aim To evaluate and gain a better understanding of web-based instructional (training) intervention and information technology and to determine the feasibility of delivering online training for a trade association or a similar organization Literature Review New technologies throw open possibilities of doing old things in a new way. This has happened in the provision of many services. "Education has not lagged behind in adopting the new technology in its service. It has welcomed the new Internet technology with open arms, and on its part, the Web has more votaries at its shrine than that of any other computer innovation," reports McCormack and Jones (1998, p. xi.). Knowledge provided traditionally by trainers and instructors is now accomplished via the Internet, computer-based training, and various methods delivered by technology. These delivery methods are now being used with traditional training and/or in place of the standard ways of learning and training. The use of the World Wide Web (WWW) as an instructional tool is gaining momentum as companies and businesses resort to it as a useful tool in the armoury of their professional devices. Students, professionals, and workers also use it in learning and training. Strategies that employ the Web as the repository for instructional information are known as Web- Based Instruction (WBI). Web-Based Instruction via information technology can support an existing teaching method or be used as a replacement, but according to McCormack and Jones, the former is currently the most common (p. 2). Web-Based Instruction (or training) can also provide tools and services that offer an extension of what teachers, parents, and other individuals try to teach and instill in their students, employees, and others. There are many websites that offer this service. One such example can be found at www.interventioncentral.org. Intervention Central (2006), found at this website, provides an

Analyse how the Holy Week is celebrated around the world. When, where, Essay

Analyse how the Holy Week is celebrated around the world. When, where, why, how is it celebrated (and much more). Give your personal opinion - Essay Example In most countries, they hold processions while carrying palm branches or crosses. Ash Wednesday is a day for cleaning the soul, and during the church service, a sign of a cross is marked with ashes on the foreheads. This symbolizes human mortality and repentance for sin. It originates from old biblical times when sinners covered their heads with ashes. Maundy Thursday or Holy Thursday is in memory of the last supper when Judas betrayed Jesus. In some churches, the priest washes a few people’s feet in memory of the way Christ washed his disciples’ feet. Good Friday is a mourning day and involves meditation on Christ’s suffering and death on the cross. In some instances, the crucifixion may be enacted. Holy Saturday is the day most Christians hold vigil as they watch and wait for Christ to return at midnight. Easter Sunday marks the end of the holy week and commemorates the resurrection of Christ. It is a very happy and important day in the Christian calendar (St. Paul

Molecular Genetics of Cancer

Molecular Genetics of Cancer INTRODUCTION It has been established that cancer is a genetic disease, characterized by interplay of mutant form of the oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes leading to the uncontrolled growth and spread of cancer cells. While some of the mutant genes may be inherited, others occur in the somatic cells of the individuals, which can divide and form tumour. Completion of Human Genome Sequencing Project has generated a wealth of new information about the mutations that trigger a cell to become cancerous. It has now been possible to understand to great extent the relationship between genes and cancer, and how mutations, chromosomal changes, viruses and environmental agents play a role in the development of cancer. In this chapter current understanding of the nature and cause of cancer has been presented. CELL CYCLE AND CANCER During mitotic cell division, in every cell, all chromosomes must duplicate faithfully and a copy of the each has to be distributed to progeny cells. Progression through the cell cycle is controlled by the activities of many genes. At different stages in the cell cycle there exist control points (G1, G2, S, and M stages) at which the cell cycle is arrested if there is damage to the genome or cell-cycle machinery. Such mechanism helps to repair the damage or destroy the cell. Through this process it is possible to prevent the possibility of dividing a defective cell and from becoming cancerous. Proteins and enzymes called cyclines and cycline-dependent kinases (Cdks) respectively are the key components that are involved in the regulation of events in the checkpoints. At the G1-to-S checkpoint, two different G1 cycline/Cdks complex forms, resulting in activation of the kinase. The kinase catalyzes a series of phosphorylations (addition of phosphate group) of cell-cycle control proteins, affecting the functions of those proteins and leading to translation into the S phase. Similarly, at the G2-to-M checkpoint, a G2 cycline binds to a Cdk to form a complex. Phosphorylation of the Cdk by another kinase keeps the Cdk inactive. Removal of a phosphate group from Cdk by a phosphataes enzyme activates the Cdk. Thereafter, the cell moves from S to M phase, due to phosphorylation of proteins by Cdk. Regulation of Cell Division in Normal Cells Division of normal cells is regulated by both extracellular and cellular molecules that operate in a complicated signal system. Steroids and hormones made in other tissues are extracellular molecules, which influence the growth and division of some other tissues. These extracellular molecular are known as growth factors, which bind to specific receptors on their target cells. The receptors are proteins that span the plasma membrane, and the growth factor binds to the part of the receptor which lies outside of the cell. The signal is then transmitted to an intracellular part through the membrane-embedded part of the receptor. Thereafter, the signal is relayed through a series of proteins, which ultimately activate nuclear genes involved in stimulation and division of cells through transcription factors (Fig 13.1a). In the opposite direction, inhibition of cell growth and division is regulated by growth-inhibiting factors (Fig 13.1b). The process which involves either growth-stimulator y or growth-inhibitory signal after binding of the extracellular factor to the receptors is called signal transduction, and the proteins involved in such process are called signal transducers. Cell division in normal cells takes place only when there exist balance between stimulatory and inhibitory signals from outside the cells. Any mutation either in the stimulatory or inhibitory genes or genes encoding cell surface receptors involved in cell cycle control may cause imbalance and loss of control of cell division. CANCERS ARE GENETIC DISEASE Clinically, cancer is defined as a large number of complex diseases that behave differently depending on the cell types from which they originate. However, at the molecular level, all cancers exhibit common characteristics, and thus they can be grouped as a family. All cancer cells share two fundamental properties: unregulated cell proliferation, characterized by abnormal growth and division, and metastasis, a process that allow cancer cells to spread and invade other parts of the body. When a cell loses its genetic control over its growth and division, it may give rise to a benign tumour, a multicellular mass. Such tumours may cause no serious harm and can often be removed by surgery. However, if cells of the tumour also acquire the ability to break loose, enter the blood stream, invade other cells, they may induce formation of secondary tumours elsewhere in the body. Such tumours are called malignant, which are difficult to treat and may become life threatening. A benign tumour may become malignant through multiple steps and genetic mutations. Mutations in three kinds of genes can leads to cancer. These are proto-oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes and mutator genes. Mutant proto-oncogenes are called oncogenes, are usually more active than normal cells. The product of oncogenes stimulates cell proliferation. The normal tumour suppressor genes inhibit cell proliferation, while the mutants found in tumour cells have lost their inhibitory function. The normal mutator genes are required to ensure fidelity of replication and maintenance of genome integrity, while mutant mutator genes in cancer cells make the cells prone to accumulate mutational errors. RETROVIRUS AND ONCOGENES Most cancer causing animal viruses are RNA viruses known as retroviruses, and the oncogenes carried by RNA tumour viruses are altered forms of normal animal host cell genes. Infection with retroviruses can transform normal host cells to the neoplastic state, and such cells proliferate in an uncontrolled manner to produce tumour. Examples of retroviruses include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), mouse mammary tumour virus, felin leukemia virus, and Rous sarcoma virus. A typical retrovirus particle has a protein core, which often is icosahedral in shape, with two copies of plus-sense (means directly translatable) single stranded RNA molecule (7kb and 10 kb). The core is surrounded by an envelope with virus-encoded glycoproteins inserted into it (Fig 13.2). The virus enters the host cell by interacting with the host cell surface receptor through its glycoproteins present in the envelope. To understand how retroviruses cause cancer in animals, it is essential to know their life cycle. Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) is one of the earliest retrovirus studied on induction of cancer. When a retrovirus like RSV infect a cell, the RNA genome is released from the viral particle, and a double stranded DNA copy of the genome is made by reverse transcriptase (Fig 13.3). This is known as proviral DNA. The proviral DNA then enters the nucleus of the infected cell, and integrates into the host chromosome at random locations. The integrated DNA copy is called provirus. At the left end of all retroviral RNA genomes consists of the sequence R and U5, and U3 and R at the right end. Powerful enhancer and promoter elements are located in the U5 and U3 sequences (Fig 13.3). During proviral DNA synthesis by reverse transcriptase, the end sequences are duplicated to produce long terminal repeats of U3-R-U5 (LTRs in Fig 13.3), which contain many of the transcription regulatory signals for the vir al sequence. The two ends of the proviral DNA are ligated to produce a circle, a double stranded molecule in which the two LTRs are next to each other. Staggered nicks are made in both viral and cellular DNAs, and integration of the viral DNA begins. The viral DNA ends joined through recombination. Integration occurs at this point, and single stranded gaps are ligated. The integration of retrovirus proviral DNA results in a duplication of DNA at the target site, producing short, direct repeats in the host cell DNA flanking the provirus. The proviral DNA is transcribed by host RNA polymerase II, after integration into the host DNA. The retroviruses have three protein- coding genes for the virus life cycle: gag, pol, and env (Fig 13.3). The gag gene encodes a precursor protein that is cleaved to produce virus particle protein. The pol gene encodes a precursor protein which produces an enzyme called reverse transcriptase, required for the integration of the proviral DNA into the host chromosome. The env gene encodes the precursor to the envelop glycoprotein. The progeny virus particles are produced when transcription products of the entire integrated viral DNA are packed into new viral particles. The new virus particles are released and can infect new host cells. A retrovirus may induce cancer in the host cells through two different ways. First, the proviral DNA may integrate by chance near one of the cell’s normal proto-oncogenes. The strong enhancers and promoters in the provirus then stimulate transcription of proto-oncogenes present in the host cell at high levels or at inappropriate timing. This leads to stimulation of host-cell proliferation. Second, a retrovirus may pick-up a copy of a host proto-oncogene and integrates it into its genome (Fig 13.4). The integrated oncogene may mutate during the process of transfer into the virus, or it may be expressed at abnormal levels, due to action of the viral promoters. Retroviruses that carry these viral oncogenes can infect and transform normal cells into tumour cells. Different oncogenic retroviruses carry different oncogenes. Most oncogenic retroviruses cannot replicate as they do not have a full set of life-cycle genes. Thus they cannot change growth properties of the host cells. They are called nononcogenic retroviruses. HIV-1 is a nononcogenic retrovirus. On the contrary, RSV is an oncogenic retrovirus as it can replicate its oncogenes and can affect the growth and division of the infected host cells. Viral oncogenes, genetically called v-oncs are responsible for many different cancers. The v-oncs of RSV is called v-src. Unlike RNA tumour viruses, DNA tumour viruses do not carry oncogenes. Their mechanism for transforming cells is completely different. They transform normal cells to cancerous state through the action of genes present in the viral chromosome. DNA tumour viruses are found in five major families of DNA viruses which include: papovaviruses, pox viruses, hepatitis B viruses, herpes viruses and adenoviruses. After infection, the DNA tumour viruses produce a viral protein that activates DNA replication in the host cell. Then, utilizing host proteins, the viral genome is replicated and transformed. After producing large number of progeny viruses, they lyses the host cell and the viruses thus released can infect other cell. Rarely, the viral genome instead of replicating gets integrated into the host genome. Thereafter if the viral protein that activates DNA replication of the host cell is synthesized, this will lead to division and proliferation of the host cell converting normal cell to cancerous state. Basically, the cells move from G0 phase to the S phase of the cell cycle. The DNA viruses which induces cancers are papillomaviruses (HPV 16 and 18), human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-1), hepatitis B virus, human herpesvirus 8, and epstein-barr virus. Some of these viruses cause benign tumours such as skin and venereal warts in humans. Transformation is caused by the key viral genes, E6 and E7, which encode proteins that activate progression through the cell cycle. However, in most of the cases, virus infection alone is not sufficient to trigger human cancers. Other factors like DNA damage, accumulation of mutants in cell’s oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes, are required to induce cancer in multiple pathways. Some transducing retroviruses, their viral oncogenes, viral protein and type of cancer induced is presented in Table 13.1. CANCER AND GENOME STABILITY Cancer cells are characterized by the presence of chromosomal translocations, deletions, aneuploidy, and DNA amplification. Cultured cancer cells also show similar genomic instabilities. Study of the specific chromosomal defects can be used to diagnose the type and stage of the cancer. For example, chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) gene C-ABL from chromosome 9 is translocated to the chromosome 22 in the region of gene BCR. The fused ABL-BCR gene encodes for a chimeric ABL-BCR protein, which produces an abnormal signal transduction molecule that stimulates the CML cells to proliferate. The normal ABL protein (protein kinase) acts within signal transduction pathway, transferring growth factor signals from the external environment to the nucleus, thereby control cell division. Defect in the DNA repair genes can also induce cancer. For example, Xenoderma pigmentosum (XP), a disease in which the skin becomes extremely sensitive to UV light and other carcinogens. Patients with XP often develop skin cancer. Cells of XP are defective in nucleotide excision repair, with mutations appearing in any one of the seven genes whose products are required to carry out DNA repair. Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is also caused by mutations in genes controlling DNA repair. Patients affected by HNPCC have an increased risk of developing colon, ovary, uterine, and kidney cancers. At least eight genes are associated with HNPCC, and four of these genes (MSH2, MHS6, MLH1, and MLH3) control DNA mismatch repair. Mutations in any one of these genes can lead to development of cancer. EPIGENETICS AND CANCER Epigenetics includes those factors that affect heritable gene expression but do not alter the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Examples of epigenic modifications are DNA methylation, acetylation and phosphorylation of histones etc. Modifications caused through these processes can be inherited and affect gene expression. X-chromosome inactivation, heterochromatin gene expression are such examples. Cancer cells contain major alterations in DNA methylation. In general, there is much less DNA methylation in cancer cells compared to normal cells. On the other hand promoters of some genes are highly methylated in cancer cells. Apparently these changes lead to the release of transcription repression over the bulk of genes that would otherwise remain silent, while at the same time repressing transcription of genes that would normally regulate functions such as DNA repair, cell cycle, and cellular differentiation. The genes MLH1 and BRCA1, involved in DNA repair mechanism, are transcriptionally si lenced by hypermethylation in many cancer cells. Methylation profiles can be used to diagnose types of tumours and their possible course of development. It has also been observed that histones are also modified in the cancer cells. These modifications are due to mutations in the genes that encode histone acetylases, deacetylases, methyltransferases, and demethylases. Since the epigenetic modifications are reversible, epigenetic- based therapies may be useful for cancer treatments. APOPTOSIS AND CANCER If a normal cell encounters defective processing in DNA replication, DNA repair or chromosome assembly, they do not allowed to continue through the cell cycle, till the conditions are corrected and thereby reduces the chances of accumulation of defective cells. In case the damage of the DNA is irreparable, the cell may go through a second line of defence called programmed cell death or apoptosis. Apoptosis is controlled genetically, and is an inherent process to eliminate certain cells that are not required for by the final adult organism. In this process, the nuclear DNA becomes fragmented, internal cellular structures are disrupted, and cell dissolves into small spherical (apoptotic) bodies. Thereafter, these bodies are engulfed by the phagocytic cells of the immune system. The products of the genes Bcl2 and BAC can trigger or prevent apoptosis. In the cancer cells these genes are mutated, and as a result normal checkpoints in the cell cycle are inactivated. Such cells remain defec tive and cannot undergo apoptosis. TUMOUR SUPRESSOR GENES Henry Harris in late 1960’s observed that some cell lines, derived from the somatic hybrid of normal rodent cells and cancer cells, did not form tumours, instead established a normal growth pattern. He speculated that products of some genes present in the normal cells had the ability to suppress the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells. These genes are called tumour suppressor genes. Inactivation of tumour suppressor genes has been linked to the development of a wide variety of human cancer, including colon, lung and breast cancers. With the development of positional cloning technique, it has become possible to isolate tumour suppressor genes. In this technique, variations in the genetic characters present in the cancer cells and/or in cells of patients with inherited cancer predisposition are identified. Existence of variations indicate occurrence of mutations and help to study such mutations through cloning. Through this technique several tumour suppressor genes are identified in humans (Table 13.2). The p53 Tumour-Suppressor Gene In human cancer cells p53 is the most frequently mutated gene. The nuclear protein encodes by the gene p53 acts as a transcription factor. It can stimulate transcription or repress more than 50 different genes. Although the p53 protein is continuously synthesized, it is rapidly degraded and thus is present in low levels. When p53 protein binds to another protein called Mdm2, it induces degradation and sequesters the transcriptional activation domain of p53. It also prevents conversion of inactive p53 protein to active form. In case Mdm2 protein gets dissociated from p53 protein then rapid increase in the activated p53 protein takes place at nuclear level. Such dissociation is induced due to creation of dsDNA breaks, chemical damage in DNA and presence of DNA-repair intermediates. Increase in the level of p53 protein leads to increased protein phosphorylation, acetylation, and other post translational modifications. The products of p53 gene control the movement of the normal cells through different phases of the cell cycle. Activated p53 proteins can: i) stimulate transcription of p21 protein (which arrests progression from G1-S checkpoint of mitotic cycle), ii) regulate gene expression that retard replication of DNA (this helps in repair of the damaged DNA before replication), and iii) block damaged cells (DNA damage occurred during S phase) from progression from G2 to M checkpoint by regulating expression of other genes.